Mono Lake is an alkaline and hypersaline lake in California, United States that is a critical nesting habitat for several bird species and is one of the most productive ecosystems in North America. Geology Mono Craters are rhyolitic domes. The dark colored Negit Island is of volcanic origin and is somewhat less than 2000 years old. Paoha Island is the larger and lighter colored island in the lake and was formed 300 years ago from uplift caused by magma movement. Black Point is the remnant of a cinder cone volcano that erupted under water in prehistoric times, when Mono Lake was much larger (and referred to as Lake Russell). Ecology In order to provide water for growing Los Angeles, water was diverted from the Owens River and then from the tributaries that fed Mono Lake (see California Water Wars). In 1941 the city of Los Angeles extended an aqueduct system into the Mono Basin, diverting water that would otherwise have entered Mono Lake. Enough water was diverted that evaporation soon exceeded inflow and the lake level fell rapidly, exposing alkaline sands and once-submerged tufa towers, and turning Negit Island into a peninsula, exposing the nests of gulls to coyotes and forcing them to abandon the island. In 1976 University of California, Davis graduate student David Gaines earned his master's degree studying the Mono Lake ecosystem and was instrumental in alerting the public of the effects of the lower water level. Gaines formed the Mono Lake Committee in 1978 and joined up with the Audubon Society to fight a now famous court battle to protect Mono Lake through state public trust laws. Despite these efforts, the lake is still lower than historic levels and exposed shorelines are a source of significant alkali dust during periods of high winds. Owens Lake, which sustained a similar ecosystem, completely dried up because of water diversions. Mono Lake was spared the same fate on September 28, 1994, when the California State Water Resources Control Board issued an order to protect Mono Lake and its tributary streams. Since that time the lake level has steadily risen; in 1941 the lake level was at 6417 feet above sea level and as of 2004 it was at 6381 feet (1945 m). The goal is to have lake level rise to 6392 feet above sea level, a goal made more difficult by drought in the American West. The lake contains approximately 280 million tons of dissolved salts, with the salinity varying on the amount of water in the lake at any given time. Before 1941, the salinity was approximately 50 grams per liter (g/l) (compared to a value of 31.5 g/l for the world's oceans). In 1982, when the lake reached its lowest level, the salinity had nearly doubled to 99 g/l. In 2002 it was measured at 78 g/l and is expected to stablize at an average 69 g/l as the lake replenishes over the next 20 years. The hypersalinity and high alkalinity (pH=10 or equivalent to 2.5 grams of NaOH per liter of water[2]) of the lake, means that no fish are native to the lake. An attempt by the California Department of Fish and Game to stock the lake failed. The lake is famous for the Mono Lake brine shrimp, Artemia monica, a tiny species of brine shrimp, no bigger than a thumbnail, that are found nowhere else on earth. During the warmer summer months, an estimated 4-6 trillion brine shrimp inhabit the lake. The species has no food value for humans, but is a staple for birds of the region. Also an important food source, alkali flies ("Ephydra hians") live along the shores of the lake and walk underwater encased in small air bubbles to graze and to lay eggs. The whole food chain of the lake is based on the high population of single-celled algae present in the warm shallow waters. Mono Lake is a vital resting and eating stop for migratory shorebirds and has been recognized as an International Reserve in the Western Hemisphere Reserve Network. Nearly 2,000,000 waterbirds, including 35 species of shorebirds, use Mono Lake to rest and eat for at least part of the year. Some shorebirds that depend on the resources of Mono Lake include American avocets, Killdeers, and sandpipers. Over 1.5 million eared grebes and phalaropes use Mono Lake during their long migrations. Late every summer tens of thousands of Wilson's phalaropes and red-necked phalaropes arrive from their nesting grounds, and feed until they continue their migration to South America or the tropical oceans respectively. In addition to migratory birds, a few species spend several months to nest at Mono Lake. Over 85% of the state population of California gulls nest at Mono Lake each year. After abandoning the landbridged Negit Island in the late 70s, California gulls have moved to some nearby islets and have established new, if less protected nesting sites. Cornell University and Point Reyes Bird Observatory have continued the study of nesting populations on Mono Lake that was begun over 20 years ago. Snowy Plovers also arrive at Mono Lake each spring t

Carlos visits the famous Amazon Theatre in Manaus, a city located on the world's longest river. UNHCR / J. Galvao The changing profile of refugees arriving in Brazil's Amazonian heart MANAUS, Brazil, October 24 (UNHCR) – With a master's degree in geology, Carlos* used to live a comfortable, stress-free life with good long-term prospects as an employee in the state-run mining sector of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Today, his homeland lies on the other side of a vast ocean and he struggles to earn a living teaching French in the heart of the Amazon. "The loneliness is torturing me," the refugee tells UNHCR visitors in the Brazilian city of Manaus. Carlos's mining career came to an abrupt halt when he was sent by the DRC government to mediate in a bitter row in 2009 between two communities over management of fish ponds that eventually left tens of thousands of people displaced in the northern province of Equateur. During the negotiation process, Carlos ended up being accused of taking sides and began to fear for his life. He first sought shelter in the neighbouring Republic of Congo, before deciding to go much further afield in his quest for safety and the chance to rebuild his life. With the help of a family acquaintance, he flew to South America via South Africa, finally arriving about a year ago in the Brazilian city of Manaus in the heart of the Amazon after a peripatetic journey. But after reaching the bustling port metropolis he was surprised to find a growing population of asylum-seekers from Africa and Asia who are contributing to the diversity of the "Paris of the Tropics." Traditionally Brazil has been a refuge for people only from countries in the region, but UNHCR staff based in Manaus have noticed more so-called "extra-regionals" arriving in the past two years. In this period, about 40 extra-regionals like Carlos have turned up in Amazonas state, of which Manaus is the capital, and applied for asylum. Most are young men coming from countries in sub-Saharan Africa, but the total also includes Bangladeshis, Iranians and Sri Lankans. Brazilian social worker Rosa Zanchin said most of the extra-regionals who apply for asylum in Manaus cited political or religious persecution for fleeing from their home countries. Many cross into Amazonas overland or by boat from Peru or Colombia after flying to places like Ecuador. Zanchin said many of those who made their way to Manaus said their goal was to reach faraway Sao Paulo, Brazil's largest city. "Others want to stay in this city and try to rebuild their lives," she added. Father Isaias de Andrade, coordinator of Caritas Archdiocese of Manaus, said there were several factors behind the growing number of refugees and migrants arriving in Brazil from other continents. "Brazil's international stature has strengthened its reputation as a host country," he noted, while adding that Manaus' geographic position and the porous nature of its borders had placed the city on major migration routes. But the extra-regionals face a host of challenges. Aside from the difficulties of social and cultural integration, including mastering the Portuguese language, some asylum-seekers face uncertainty over their applications for refugee status. Even recognized refugees faces local integration difficulties. Carlos speaks Portuguese but he feels like a stranger and finding enough work to live on has been very tough. "I have a master's degree in geology, but earn my living by giving intermittent French classes. At this moment I don't have a wage that allows me to live with dignity." UNHCR field officers based in Manaus monitor the welfare of people like Carlos and the agency also offers legal assistance to all asylum-seekers who arrive in the region. And through its partnership with Caritas, UNHCR provides emergency humanitarian assistance, vocational training courses and language lessons to ease the integration of refugees and asylum-seekers and help them become self-sufficient. UNHCR's top official in Brazil, Andres Ramirez, noting that people continue to flee conflict and persecution around the world, said it was "no coincidence that Brazil hosts refugees from 77 nationalities on its territory." Brazil currently has some 4,500 refugees, according to official figures. Of these, 64 per cent come from Africa, 22 per cent from the Americas and almost 11 per cent from Asia. Angola, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia and Iraq are the leading countries of origin. In total, northern Brazil's Amazonas and Acre states host about 140 refugees (mainly Bolivians) and some 2,000 asylum-seekers of various nationalities, including many from Haiti. * Name changed for protection reasons By Janaina Galvao in Manaus, Brazil