Sri Lanka was known to many countries in ancient and medieval times. It pursued an active foreign policy and established links with many foreign countries. Sri Lanka is mentioned in Greek and Roman writings dating from the third century BC by Kalisthenes, Oneskritus, Megasthenes, Strabo, and Pliny. Sri Lanka was included in the map of Asia, drawn in 150 AD by Ptolemy. The first recorded encounter between Rome and Sri Lanka took place during the reign of Claudius (41-54 AD) in Rome. Pliny has described the event. A Roman merchant had been shipwrecked in Sri Lanka. On his return to Rome, he took with him four ambassadors of the Sinhala king. However, there had been contact even before that. The Mahavamsa states that Bhatika Abhaya (BC 22 to 7 AD) had sent an embassy to Rome and got down coral for a net to be cast over the Maha Thupa. The Sri Lanka king was recognised by North India. North India, during this period, included Pakistan, Bangladesh and a good part of today’s Afghanistan. Devanampiyatissa (BC 250-210) sent an embassy to King Dharmasoka. The mission left from Jambukola near Point Pedro and arrived at Pataliputra via Tamluk in Bengal. Dharmasoka in return sent the items needed for the consecration of a king. The Sinhala King Kithsirimevan (301-328 AD) had sent a mission to the North Indian king Samudragupta, stating that he wished to a build a rest house and monastery for pilgrims visiting Buddha Gaya. Centuries later, the Rajput mercenaries brought in by the general Mitta to depose King Bhuvaneka Bahu I (1272-1284) sided with the king and the rebellion failed. Relations with South India were quite different. The two kingdoms meddled in each other’s affairs. South India supplied mercenaries for several Sinhala kings who needed to fight for the throne. The first was Ilanaga (33-34 AD) followed by Dathopatissa I (639-650). The Pallava king Narasinha Varman I, supplied King Manavamma, (684-718) with an army to challenge the ruling king, Dathopatissa II. Manavamma’s son, Mahinda I (730-733 AD) was born in India. Lokesvara (1210-1211) also went to India and returned with a Tamil army. However, there were also marriage links with South India. Queen Lilavati belonged to the Pandya line on her father’s side. Vijayabahu I gave his sister in marriage to a Pandya prince, in preference to a Chola prince. There were trade and diplomatic links too. Parakramabahu I actively encouraged trade with South India. In his Nainativu inscription written in Tamil, he said that foreign merchants were welcome, and were assured of protection. The Sinhala king did not stick only to the eastern side of India. Vijayabahu I exchanged envoys and gifts with the Kannata, (Western Chalukya) king. The Chalukya region was in western India. The Pandyas, Pallavas and Cholas of South India, were equally matched in political and military strength. There were continuous conflicts between them as they battled for supremacy in South India. Their power struggles overflowed into Sri Lanka. The Sinhala king usually sided with the Pandya kings against the Chola king. Kassapa V (14-23 AD) sent troops to fight on behalf of the Pandya king against the Chola king. Mahinda IV (956-72) had a successful campaign in India against the Chola king. Rajasimha Pandya fled to Ceylon with the crown jewels during the reign of Dappula IV (924-935). Sri Lanka underwent several periods of South Indian rule. Tamil chiefs ruled in Sri Lanka in the first and second century BC. The specific periods are BC 103-89 and BC 48-44. There was a period of Pandya rule in the fifth century between 429-455. The Cholas occupied the Rajarata, from 1017 to 1070 AD. They captured Mahinda V and took him to India. Then came Magha of Kerala who ruled parts of the Rajarata from 1215 to 1232. Sri Lanka was also subjected to several shortlived invasions from South India. The Cholas invaded during the time of King Kalyanavati (1202-1208), Anikanda (1209), Lokesvara (1210-1211) and Lilavati (1197-1212). Jatavarman Sundara Pandya invaded around 1258. There was another Pandya invasion under Ariyachakravarti, around 1286. The bowl and tooth relic were taken away. Parakramabahu III (1287-1293) had to negotiate with King Kulasekhera to get it back. Sri Lanka had trade links with Central Asian kingdoms such as Bactria and Gandhara. These are now a part of Afghanistan. Gandhara had trade connections with Sri Lanka in the first century AD. Coins from Bactria have been found in Ruhuna. Three inscriptions from Koravakgala at Situlpahuwa in the Hambantota district contain the word ‘Kaboja’. The Kambojas were a native population in the western part of the Mauryan Empire speaking a language of Iranian origin. Persia (now Iran) was India’s neighbour at this time. Persia’s other boundary ended at the Mediterranean Sea. The western trade was controlled by Persia. Sri Lanka had trade links with it. Several Iranian records speak of an embassy from the Sri Lankan king to Iranian emperor Anusharwan (

Seminar: EU COUNCIL PRESIDENCY – PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE PROSPECTS On 15 February 2011 PISM hosted seminar with participation of Petr Drulak (Director of the Institute of International Relations, Prague) and Leszek Jesien (European Union Programme Coordinator at PISM). Dr. Drulak reffered in his speech to a general clasification of the pre-Lisbon rotating presidencies, based on the effectiveness and impartiality’ factors while dr. Jesien focused on the new institutional surrounding of the rotating presidency and its challenges arising from the European agenda. 5 lutego 2011 r. PISM zorganizowal seminarium z udzialem Petra Drulaka (Dyrektora Instytutu Stosunkow Miedzynarodowych w Pradze) oraz Leszka Jesienia (Koordynatora ds. UE w PISM). Tematem wystapienia dr Drulaka byla ogolna klasyfikacja prezydencji przedlizbonskich pod wzgledem ich efektywnosci i bezstronnosci w relacjach z panstwami czlonkowskimi UE i z partnerami zewnetrznymi. Przedmiotem rozwazan dr Jesienia bylo natomiast obecne usytuowanie prezydencji rotacyjnej w nowej architekturze instytucjonalnej i wyzwania, jakie stawia prezydencji agenda europejska.